Speech For Sorority Initiation

The "Finis Terre" Modern Culture and communicative context

By: Nicanor Wong Arch Ortiz / / jnwong@cap-regionallima.org

Summary: Anthony Giddens (1) in the text "Consequences of Modernity" describes the current situation in which we live that would be only the radicalization of the Enlightenment principles of rationality or modernity. Is it possible that humanity out of this impasse?

Ideologies - apparently - are driving the movement worldwide. Giddens is one of the contemporary thinkers who have accurately described the current situation in which we live. As

from physics is necessary for any item not cause any effect to occur over another, just as disclosures of contemporary thinkers modify the act of political elites to the way meteorologists can predict the climate of the world based on some data that do not become completely regular. Climate aspects



Climate, refers to a certain atmospheric conditions of each country, and telluric. The concept of "space located" or "where" is a prerequisite in order to place mentally. However, the "when" save a different interaction.

Classically, the "where" and "when" were two related concepts, resulting from the observation of nature that surrounds us and transformations suffered during the various seasons. However, the abstraction (2) of the time appears in a double process: the formation of cities - and the subsequent bipolarity city-country - and the spread of the mechanical clock that expresses this dimension "empty" of any location. The concept of "time" is organizing the pace of city life, while the "space" becomes - in contrast - imaginative. Note that this is nothing more than a mere appearance. Time as succession quantitative "before" and "after" is based on "material space." It is only in the "where" the physical space in which changes are made that can make us see the change, the succession. The development of mapping the planet divided meridian and parallel to that in 1884, reaching an international agreement by which the planet is divided into 24 time zones using the meridian, being the home of Greenwich.

However, this appearance that "time" is disengaged from the "space" for our modern conception is a key precondition. Modern man, along with technological advances in transportation, control your life through time over space.

This dislocation space-time affects, positively or negatively, the world-historical framework of action and human experience, namely, customs and local practices. Uprooting of social relations from local contexts of interaction would re structuring in space-time intervals spooky in an eternal present unpredictable climate.

A new global mapping

The social map of our society is characterized by diversity and individuality. If the proposed Enlightenment rationalism global adherence to the project of achieving universal happiness based on the progressive development of technique and the reason (evolutionism progressive), that universal adherence has not reached all the inhabited world and in industrialized countries or the first world is in serious question.

representative or symbolic technique (3) world map, considering the world as the land lease still took second place with sound project. The astrolabe and quadrant to locate, whether a particular individual or group, would be replaced by money. Keynes (4) distinguish the "cash-on-account" of the money itself. The first is subject to loan facilities, debt, credit and weather: the banking system, a key feature of the capitalist process reported by Weber. The appearance of these credit schemes can be read as another consequence of the gap between time and space. The ability to be present in the world would be detached from the physical location of the accumulation. Where we make our credit card transactions.

The cartographer

The modern system legitimize the individual in relation to a profession that has learned through a body established and regulated by the nation state: the School. Foucault (5) indicate that prisons, schools and workplaces (6) are strictly modern institutions.

expert cartoonist modern world map, capitalist and industrialized, should not only represent but also to monitor the activities of people in the political and economic, says Giddens. As quadrant (7) would use the new systems of information, as astrolabe (8) faith in the stars continue to maintain the position that suits the drawing of the map. How else could explain how the economic crisis happening in 2009? Is not it assumed that the "professional expert" can and should monitor these developments and predict what is adventure? The United States, the world's largest economy, exceeded their mortgage before a housing bubble in the amount of the currency seems low. Will be one of the characteristics of capitalism (9) and industrialism (10) modern view, the map, not as a useful and "safe" to move but as a product to sell to the highest bidder.

Map

The product itself any cartographer's work is adequate representation of a map to guide it safely to travelers and sailors on their journeys.

rely on the map is a sine qua non "for individuals and institutions, but this human condition is based on a less tangible: faith. Both signals

symbolic as money or expert systems as certified professionals need this ability abstract respect for the value of the action they perform. For Simmel (11) the reliability is related to public confidence in government institutions. Forms of reliability rest on vague and partial understandings based on knowledge, a weak inductive knowledge (12) "I have faith that everything will be fine." The cartography of passes to the realm of the possible, probable and available.

The risk of running aground

Luhmann (13) recognizes that the reliability and confidence are closely linked but with a nuance of difference that then mention.
Both words are understood in relation to the lack of knowledge since they would not trust or rely on something that if I knew that the result would be good or not harmful.

The "risk", a term which - apparently - only appears in the modern period ("risk" comes into English via the English in the seventeenth century, probably through a nautical term that means danger of crashing into a cliff). Given the recent introduction of this term to the English lexicon, assume it is a characteristic of modernity. It does not mean that the modern pre not distinguish these terms but were steeped in religious cosmology. The possibility of an accident was defined as a plan of divine providence which God, would take a good lesson from it: "Omnia in bonum" (everything is for good). However, the Enlightenment rationalism denies the religious concept, introduced the concept of "random" and "coincidence." Each "citizen" is called to be responsible for the consequences of their decisions and actions. In the analogy with "the map", it does not matter, what matters is the election so that "if one abstains from the action does not run any risk." Giddens indicates that there is an error in this statement since it does not consider external factors to inaction. The axiom is valid outside of reality but not in the same one where the action has some impact on another, and others. Does modern banks do not have qualified personnel in the best educational institutions, not to have realized that the profit motive would leave no equity in their home loans and would go bankrupt?

is therefore that "trust" assumes the risk difference confidence and both of the possibility of failure.

The helmsman

All cultures of the world maintain a tradition that pays tribute to the past and value as symbols perpetuate the experience of generations. This control integrates civic attitude reflective of the community managing time and space in continuity with the past with the present and the future. It is not static, as it has to be reinvented by each new generation to be made of the cultural heritage of those who precede them.

However, in cultures the concept of oral tradition passed diluted. Just writing is marked with a gap between time and space in which the reflexive appropriation of knowledge can highlight this tradition so that the past has much more weight than the future.

contrast, Enlightenment rationality to the routine of daily life has no connection to the past. The "so it was always done" in light of new knowledge would be only valid as a matter of principle. In modern cultures routine practices are altered with the progressive discoveries.

Despite our age of information overflow, the decision to trust is not gone, just because - given the wealth of data - there is no certainty of truth. Nobody trusts who is transparent in their actions but who does not provide complete information in which we trust to be true. It is here where lies the difference between reliability and trust. The first is closely related to contingency or chance, while confidence in the honor of someone at risk. That is, I trust the helmsman of the ship and the trust the cartographic map and good weather.

Reliability is the link between faith and trust that - as argued by Giddens - comes from a weak inductive knowledge. It is trust in a person or system.

A journey into the "Finis Terre

The belief that the earth was flat and floated on a sea was eternal and mysterious for centuries, empirical truth to the sailors stopped stepping out of the course charted by the coastline. Could say the trip was "safe" since the set of hazards were minimized within an acceptable risk.

During the rationalist, who could place in the thirteenth century, this human capacity should have been able to establish true and enduring knowledge. However, what Giddens calls "reflection" is not meant as a reflection on something called the "real external" but on "depicted in our knowledge." So can it give us certain knowledge of rationality? Karl Popper (14) ensures that we can never be sure that knowledge will not be reformulated in some of its elements as "science rests on quicksand "(15). There is no certainty of truth but pure conjecture. Spared the risk of misunderstanding and irresponsibility factual consequence before the error, any speculative proof is equally valid.

Although the French Enlightenment had a penchant for redefining the world - as did Adam commissioned by God to put a name to each animal - starting with the zoology and botany, they found a quick definition for the child "image and likeness of God ": to be rational, ceasing to be a compound of body and soul are they complete the two definitions? While the first emerges within a context Deist (16), the second comes from the scholastic (17) medieval. In my opinion, the most appropriate definition would be "the Incarnate Word (18) to combine in this way their social power speaker, so wise and body or material interests.

could say that in Modernism the epistemological foundations are fallible, that history has no teleology - so the idea of \u200b\u200bprogress can not be defensible - and the social agenda becomes important ecological and new social movements. Speaking of the postmodern as a replacement of modernity is impossible since only reflections concerning aesthetic elements of modernity. Socially could refer to the social trajectory that departs from the modern institutions and lead us to something new and different, but this does not prove its existence.

agree with Giddens: "We have not moved beyond modernity but are living the phase of radicalization," whose features are:

- The dissolution of evolution
- The disappearance of historical teleology: progressivism
- Recognition of rational reflexivity
- The Fall of the West

The changeable and unstable nature of reality, which denies modern rationalism, promoted as a social habit uncertainty into the future. Trust, based on personal values, is also subject to cognitive orientation created by the changing perspectives of the social world: there is no transcendent basis of the same but rational and, therefore, uncertain.

If mundalización or globalization, as characteristic of modernity, is based on the spatio-temporal distance, social relations can become an ocean waterway long as the anthropological find appropriate wording - beyond rational reductions , linguistic or emotional - and recover the notion of truth and transcendence. Otherwise, this barge we call world inevitably precipitate in that mysterious eternal sea of \u200b\u200buncertainty.

Notes:

(1) Anthony Giddens (London, England, January 18, 1938) is a British sociologist, known for his theory of structuration and his holistic view of modern societies. Based on the book referred to in this essay is: Giddens, Anthony "The consequences of modernity", Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1990.
(2) Separate operation through intellectual qualities of an object to be considered in isolation or to consider the same object in its pure essence or notion.
(3) Giddens indicates that one of the detaching device, ie, a mechanism that removes the social relationship of immediacy in context: separation of time and space, is the creation of symbolic tokens for excellence will be the money.
(4) John Maynard Keynes, first Baron Keynes, CB (Cambridge, June 5, 1883 - Firley, April 21, 1946) was a British economist whose ideas had a strong impact on modern economic and political theories and also on the fiscal policies of many governments.
(5) Michel Foucault (Poitiers, October 15, 1926 - Paris, June 25, 1984) was a philosopher, French historian and professor at several French and American universities and History Chair systems of thought at the Collège de France (1970-1984).
(6) Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punishment. Allen Lane, London, 1977
(7) The quadrant is an ancient instrument used to measure angles in astronomy and navigation.
(8) The astrolabe is an instrument to determine the positions of stars on the sky.
(9) Capitalism is a system of commodity production focused on the relationship between private ownership of capital and wage labor deprived of property, with this relationship that sets the main focus of the class system. The company depends on production for competitive markets in which Prices are signals to investors, producers and consumers.
(10) Industrialism is the use of inanimate sources of energy material in the production of quality associated with the central role of machinery in the production process. Presupposes a social organization of production regularized coordinates human activity, machinery and inputs and outputs of raw materials and products.
(11) Georg Simmel (Berlin, March 1, 1858 - Strasbourg, 28 September 1918) was a German philosopher and sociologist.
(12) Inductive reasoning is a form of deductive reasoning is to draw conclusions general from premises that contain private data. For example, repeated observation of objects or events of a similar nature provides a conclusion to all objects or events of this nature.
(13) a sociologist Niklas Luhmann was born in the city of Lüneburg, Lower Saxony in 1927. He died in 1998. In 1964 published the first book devoted to analyzing sociological problems from the use of systems theory, "Funktionen und Folgen Formal Organisation" (Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 1964).
(14) Karl Raimund Popper (Vienna, July 28, 1902 - London, September 17, 1994) was a philosopher, sociologist and theorist of science born in Austria. He outlined his views on the philosophy of science in his work, now classic, "The logic of scientific research," 1934.
(15) Popper, Karl. Conjectures and Refutations. Routledge, London, 1962.
(16) Doctrine which recognizes a God as author of nature, but without admitting revelation or external worship.
(17) Philosophy of the Middle Ages, Christian, Arabic and Jewish, which dominates the teaching of the doctrines of Aristotle, concluded with the respective religious doctrines.
(18) The term was removed from the Bible or Christian book called Neo Vulgate, specifically the Gospel of John 1.14.

How To Get Honeycombs Jeans

By: Nicanor Wong Arch Ortiz / / jnwong@cap-regionallima.org

Summary: modern rationalism into question the definitions from all past, including culture. What is the culture today? Certainly an accumulation of events manipulated by the mass media. Individual identity is lost in the ordinary, discursive intellect recipient, the discursive order in narrative. Morató Javier del Rey, Doctor of Science in Information from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, opens up some ideas in this current situation.

The difficulty of talking about the political culture is older in this category, and has its origin in the difficulty of reaching consensus on what is culture thing. Moles (1) reminds us that there are two hundred and fifty definitions of culture, which realizes the problems posed by the attempt to reach an unequivocal concept in the title of the article.

Since what interests us is to say something about political culture, settled the question of what kinds of culture is based on the psychosocial approach: culture is the human capacity in constant evolution, to interpret and change the environment, adapting to it , constitutes a praxis of new modes of reality.
citizens come into contact with the culture primarily in two ways: education and the flow of messages we get from the media. At the time humanistic studies proposed a scheme of the universe of ideas and knowledge, the individual then found again in the adult world. But that is no longer so, and today there is no direct connection between them, especially since the advent of television.

culture, pantry and politics

Bell (2) recognizes that culture has become the most dynamic component of our civilization, in a boost in the idea of \u200b\u200bchange and novelty led to the search for the new. Bell writes that the idea of \u200b\u200bone or more leading the vanguard elites suggests that art and modern culture would never serve as reflections of underlying social structure, as would affirm Marxism (3) - but the march to begin something new. And that idea of \u200b\u200bart, once that has been legitimized, serves to institutionalize the primacy of culture in the fields of customs, morals and, ultimately, also of politics.

If Marx observed that the mode of production conditioned the rest of the dimensions of a society and culture, an ideology, reflected a substructure and could not be autonomous, Bell is amazing what happened in the United States: radical separation between the social structure - the technical and economic order - and culture. If the social structure was governed by an economic principle defined in terms of efficiency and functional rationality, culture had become prodigal, promiscuous, dominated by a humorous anti-rational, anti-intellectual, in which I began to be considered touchstone of cultural trials and the effect on me was the measure of aesthetic experience.

The character structure inherited from the nineteenth century, with its exaltation of self-discipline, delayed gratification and restrictions, was responding to the demands of the techno-economic structure, but crashed violently with culture, where those rejected bourgeois values \u200b\u200bbegan to, paradoxically, in part by the action of the capitalist economic system and its incitement to consumption and hedonistic life.

Hedonism had become cultural justification, if not moral, of capitalism. And in the "ethos" (5) liberal now prevailing, the modernist impulse, with its ideological justification for the satisfaction of the impulse as a role model, has become the model of the "imago? (6) cultural. Herein lies the cultural contradiction of capitalism. In this it has completed the double bind of modernity.

The political culture United States the problem is how democracy is compatible with the rule and in the political culture of Latin American countries the problem is how democracy is compatible with the political and economic failure. If preindustrial primary resource was the land, and in the industrial era machinery, postindustrial knowledge which are displayed as the action can change the order of things. In the information society, management and interpretation of information is an invaluable resource, and can only be promoted by education raised in prospective terms, and not anchored in the legitimacy of some contents imposed and legislated the past: education must be oriented from a picture of the future is to be conquered to promote this in terms of that goal.

political culture, a multi-dimensional concept

Political sociology understands that political culture is a multidimensional concept, large, hybrid, mestizo, including issues as varied as the activities, beliefs, political ideals and feelings that order and give meaning to a political process, and providing the basic rules governing the behavior of the political system.

political culture "includes both objective? the institutions, functions, and information about them and subjective aspects - that is, the psychological dimension of the policy, which includes such important variables as: the feeling of belonging, identity claim, motions to the collective us and the symbols that set out and updated: flag, anthem, logo of the party, the leader, the need for risk protection, endogenous or exogenous - that might threaten society.

The concept of political culture responds to a claim: to integrate findings from psychology to sociology resources and the concepts and categories of political science, Once all of the complexities of addressing phenomenological approach does not allow in terms of a single discipline and requires a transdisciplinary coalition, able to unravel its complexity.

Probably no other social activity affects such a wide range of emotions and politics, and culture that forms around this activity is a product of the media, acting on a subject whose mind has been shaped by cultural environment, political institutions and classrooms.
media and journalists, builders input and output semantic
Conceptualized as a system of political life, offers more advantages than disadvantages, especially if we understand politics as an open system, we consider the types of exchanges that the system has with its environment and the way in which members respond to this exchange system. The political culture would be the collection of information, knowledge, habits, perceptual and psychological guidelines governing relations between system and environment.

political culture can be understood as a system of conduct, with its input and output, open to environmental influences, which can be observed responses generated by members of the system to try to regulate or control the tension that comes from environmental sources and internal and external, which occurs feedback. A culture of open political system will not resemble a culture of a closed political system, a difference that needs no further explanation if you think about American culture, French or Italian and Cuban culture, Libya and China.

The open system can reduce entropy through traffic inputs (supports and demands) and products (policies), while the closed system of reservoirs, builds up and becomes a pretext to legitimize repression .

How do you communicate the stress from the environment into the political system? In the political culture of modern democracy, relations between the environment and political system take the form of inputs and cross the boundaries of the political system through the media:

• In modern democracy, media and journalists create the cognitive map of citizens and manage traffic relations between the system and its environment. Comply with such work as follows: messages become current changes taking place both in the system and in their environment;
• formalize and build semantically inputs demand and support inputs;
• coin descriptive statements ( news) and prescriptive statements (editorial) concerning behaviors, alternatives and public policy proposals;
• highlight the role of some actors over others, allowing appearing in the media (interviews), as well as experts in specific aspects of public policy, as well as politicians who evaluated this or that product, in terms of their effects or social consequences;
• analyze the changes in the environment of the system, and interpret the inputs of demands, which encourage or discourage, granting or denying legitimacy to their claims;
• develop hypotheses and conjectures the development of supporting inputs, as input entering the system and, as reported by the state frame of relations between the environment and the system;
• analyze the products of the system in terms of potential effects or consequences in relation to the problems they solve, or the demands they want met;
• manage the flow of feedback, because they function as a system window looking out to the environment and, as a window overlooking the system environment;
• manage the validity of the values \u200b\u200bin a competitive environment, which encourages the satisfaction that is possible to give each value in a complex constellation axiological, given the pressure of facts and values \u200b\u200bon the system behavior.

The journalist contributes to achieving social homeostasis (7), although the question of whether his work is part of the social control of the shared culture is debatable, partly because much of what passes for shared culture can be interpreted as social control behaviors.

Culture and the media

The theory of mass culture, "writes Habermas (8) - studies the phenomena of social integration of consciousness through modern mass media. The philosopher recalls the skeptical analysis of Adorno (9) before mass culture, which contrasts with the hopes of Benjamin (10), on alleged emancipatory force of mass culture. Habermas argues that Adorno's analysis is insufficient because it ignores the radical ambivalence of social control exercised through the mass media.

Habermas writes that mass media are technical enhancers of linguistic communication, saving time and distances in space and multiply the possibilities of communication, denser network of communicative action, but orientations disengage action of the plexus in the world of life. Certainly, the tremendous expansion of the potential of communication is, for now, neutralized forms of organization by ensuring communication flows in one direction and not reversible communication flows.
German philosopher reminds Horkheimer analysis (11) and Adorno: communication flows replace the communication structures that had previously been possible public debate. Do electronic media? Film, radio and television-is presented as a device that enters and takes over entirely communicative language daily, with two consequences: transmute the real content of modern culture undermined stereotypes and "aseptic "of a mass culture, once purged of all subversive and transcendent moments, integrate culture in a comprehensive system of social controls omni pulled down to individuals, partly reinforces and partly replaces the weakened internal controls.

Habermas writes that the media release the communication processes of the provincial perspective contexts involving limited in space and in time, raise public spaces, implementing the abstract of a network concurrency virtually always present content of communication are distant in time and space, and putting the message contexts available to many.

media and communications horizon possible
These public spaces created by the media horizon communications hierarchy possible, while eliminating their barriers, both of which are inseparable, and therein lies the ambivalence of their potential. Channel means a unilateral communication flows in a centralized network, the center to the periphery, from top to bottom, and can enhance the effectiveness of social controls.

control But that potential is always precarious, because the very structures of communication have the potential of an emancipatory potential: the media can grab and compress simultaneously the processes of understanding, but the flow of information transmitted fails shield against the possibility that challenge the actors.
While we know that research on the influence of hearing and communication support the storyline driven by the cultural critique of Adorno, among others, Habermas reminds us of the following contradictions:

• broadcasting centers respond to competing interests, and are conditioned by them, and are not able to integrate the views of economic, political, ideological and professional
• Media fail to escape the obligations that stem from its mission of journalism;
• Messages and media programs do not always meet standards of mass culture, and even engage in trivial forms of entertainment, may contain critical messages;
• ideological messages do not always hit the spot of their target, because the influence of subcultural background can make the meaning intended by the issuer is transformed into its opposite;
• the logic of everyday communicative practice gets defensive against intervention receiver manipulative media;
• the technical development of electronic means are not necessarily running in the direction of centralization networks.

The philosopher speaks of the ambivalence of the potential influence of social media in a world in which they arise new problems and new demands. The ability to survive the social protest classic class conflict and, now emerging in other lines of conflict, that deviate from typical patterns of conflict arising around the distribution, and do not originate in the areas of material reproduction and are channeled through political parties or unions, or admit solution of economic rewards. New conflicts are related to the protection and restoration or threatened life forms or the introduction of new forms of life and are not triggered on problems of distribution, but on issues relating to the grammar of forms of life. These conflicts

express a change of values, a change of topics, a departure from the old policy, centered around issues of social and economic security, internal security and military security, and a move towards a new politics, Which is to say that we have a new sensibility and a new political culture, their issues are quality of life, equal rights, individual self-realization, participation and human rights.
If the old policy is defended by employers, workers and middle class employed in industry and commerce, the so-called new policy has its market in the new middle class, in the younger generation and the university.

Notes:
(1) Abraham Moles André (Paris, 1920). French sociologist. Highlight their contributions to the study of mass culture, especially in relation to aesthetics.
(2) Daniel Bell (New York, May 10, 1919), sociologist and professor emeritus at Harvard University.
(3) doctrine derived from the theories of German philosophers Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, of interpreting Hegel's dialectical idealism and dialectical materialism, and aims to achieve a classless society.
(4) Karl Heinrich Marx (Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate May 5, 1818 - London, March 14, 1883) was a philosopher, historian, sociologist, economist, writer and German socialist thinker. Theoretical father of scientific socialism and communism, along with Friedrich Engels.
(5) Ethos is a Greek word (ἦθος; plurals: ethe, Ethea). "Ethos", originally meaning "abode or dwelling place of men and animals", it seems that the poet Homer was the first to give this first sense. Later Aristotle is responsible for granting a second meaning to this ethos, viewing it as "habit, character or mode of being" that will be incorporated into the man throughout his existence.
(6) In psychoanalysis is used for the ideal person that has its image in the parent of the opposite sex.
(7) self-assembly phenomena of trying to keep balanced compositions and properties of the body.
(8) Jurgen Habermas (Düsseldorf, 1929), German philosopher and social theorist.
(9) Wiesengrund Theodor Adorno (September 11, 1903, Frankfurt (Germany) - August 6, 1969, Visp, Switzerland) was a German philosopher who also wrote on sociology, psychology and musicology. He is considered one of the leading representatives of the so-called Frankfurt School and critical theory Marxist.
(10) Walter Benjamin (Berlin, July 15, 1892 - Portbou, September 27, 1940) was a Marxist philosopher and literary critic and German-Jewish philosopher.
(11) Max Horkheimer W. (1895-1973). It is one of the fathers of the so-called critical theory. His goal was to create a theory of society that is liberating and Horkheimer, and other thinkers of the Frankfurt School - thought that the social sciences were increasingly dominated by instrumental rationality, which prevented them from being an instrument of social liberation.

Poems That Compare To Secret Life Of Bees

The "Postmodernism" failure of humanity

By: Nicanor Wong Arch Ortiz / / jnwong@cap-regionallima.org

Summary: Jean Francois Lyotard (1) is recognized as the "father of modernism, after his famous work" The Postmodern Condition ", a text that appeared in the year of 1979 brought discussion about the meaning and the duration of what this word meant Postmodernism. Without going to give a definition of it - except that you can define something based on denial - give us characteristics of this first world western culture as a failure of the modern project.

modernism as pessimism absolutization

For some, like Habermas (2) be treated as just a blip, nonexistent, a confusion caused by the decline of modernity.

The discrediting of this label comes from a lack of precision in concept that attempts to replace: the modernity or modern times. The "post" added to it would be something as vague and elusive that practically means nothing.

Moreover, the "post" would actually be a "anti" and tries to define the so-called denial-modern project. In any case, time will tell if we are truly facing a new stage of history or to delusions and consistency.

No But nobody doubts that in Western history, there is a period after the strong dominance of rationalist feudalism from a rejection of the strong predominance of divine providence in the conception of man and the world. The exaltation of reason trasformaría all aspects of daily life of European man but especially the domination of nature through science and the beginning of the production and reproduction: the industry and market.

modernity, science and reason would be worth as synonyms. As a rational statement of this program, the symbiosis of reason - science - the organization of social life - politics, would give mankind a future peace and happiness. The nature would have joined the sciences of man - or the social sciences - to set a life plan to replace the kingdom of God: the ancient religious faith. Such was the promise of even more positivism and Marxism in all its scientific nature.

To Jean François Lyotard, considered the "father of modernism," postmodernism is not the end of modernism but its nascent state, this state is constant . " It is noteworthy that, over the name "postmodern" say it is a "false name", a pseudonym, which initially took the Italian architects and a certain current dela American literary criticism. This misused term introduces confusion in the minds of the modern satisfied. Clearly, it will continue, that the name "post modernity" can not mean "what comes after modernity," because the word "modern" just means "now and after now" is "now." Not the end of one thing and the beginning of another. "That would be absurd, I would say that is something that has always been a part of" modernity "as the melancholy ..." (3), is therefore that Lyotard breaks the law of contradiction.

On the one hand, states that "postmodern is disbelief about the meta narratives" (4) and other that modernism is a meta-story building which continued to be no more than idle questions. As proof of certainty mentioned the tragedy of "Auschwitz", where the victory of the capitalist science and technology over the other candidates for universal purpose of the story (such as socialism, human rights, Christianity) mark the destruction of implementation of modern project.

that postmodernism is thus be defined by a threefold fall: that of science, social commitment and an interview (5). The postmodern crisis talks today against reason and against logic. In the words of Lyotard: "everything that is received, even yesterday, should be object of suspicion. " Interestingly, rejection per se is very typical of modernity.

For the" postmodern "no rational explanation, no science that is worth. It rejects any that seeks to encompass a systematic all or any theoretical foundation type. The only thing that counts is literature or art. Everything is fun, such as resolving the paradox of "understand the future given by the" post "something is done now (" modernus = now).

In social life emphasizes the "diversity", which basically would mean that each person, each human group, live as seems appropriate. There would be no rules. No have goals of human perfection that was desirable for everyone because the rules are already written, only "... we have to invent allusions to the conceivable which can not be made (...) war at all, bear witness to the unpresentable, check the differences , save the honor of the name " (6). Lyotard indirectly faced with a situation epistemological (the doctrine of the fundamentals and methods of scientific knowledge), where the only thing that matters is the ability to name the conceivable.

The main ontological problem that arises is the legitimacy of the assertion:

• have sunk the meta-narratives a source of empowerment.
  
• The scientist is not able to justify their own bases, so the invention would drift since there is no problem to solve.
  
• The operative criterion is technological, it is not appropriate to judge what is true and just.
  
• The consensus achieved through dialogue (Habermas) violence to the heterogeneity of languages. Indeed, all dialogue implies a dominant on a domain.
  

Such a proposal would have a similarity with the nominalism (Tendency to deny the objective existence of universals, regarding them as mere conventions or names, as opposed to realism and idealism) of William of Ockham (7) for which there was the essence but the fiction of them as part of a whole. Moreover there are strong links with the doctrine of monads of Leibniz (8) in ways that cause impressions to be substantial man looks like a sublime reality.

postmodern capitalism

face of such hopelessness, pessimism deepens Lyotard and record the characteristics of postmodern capitalism:

• Fits republican institution.
  
• tolerates evil terrorism (because it destroys the market).
  
good
• ago crumbs with despotism.
  
• The decline of the great stories (including the decline of the liberal narrative of the enrichment of humanity) are not disturbed.
  
• No need for legitimation.
  
• 
  not prescribe anything
• is present everywhere, but more as a necessity than an end
  

So, if modernism suggested by the secular saint like figure of the common man, for the postmodern this character would be Friedrich Nietzsche (9) and the same basic attitude would hermeneutics (interpretation). But a hermeneutics that is far from the depth and greatness of the classics of this discipline. No choice but to adapt and survive.

In summary, one can interpret anything in its way. Everything is interpretation. Anything goes. In reality, there would be no reality. Or put more cultured, there is now no longer syntax and semantics. Everything is purely pragmatic. "The artist, gallerist, critic and the public are happy together in the" what-more-da ", and now is the relaxation (...) But this realism of" what-more-da "is the realism of money: a lack of aesthetic criteria is still possible and useful to measure the value of the works by the gain that can be drawn from them. This realism accommodates all trends, such as adjusting the capital to all the "needs", provided that the trends and needs have purchasing power " (10).

While modernity to European society, has been" impossible love 'own first-world countries, for many societies around the world would live in a pre-modern, or type "medieval" or almost "primitive." Nevertheless, the third world countries keep an enviable position compared to the first because they would have achieved what the Europeans want, it is to live a day as they live, without any concern for the future, and smooth reflective or theoretical. Would have come sooner, rather than being moved from its site, given that culture would actually turned around on itself in pursuit of the modern utopia.

What was bad in the project of modernity? Apparently the man's self and denial of the divine. The denial of God is not the best values \u200b\u200bof life of modern man.

relativism as the basis for postmodern politics

Jean Baudrillard (11) explains that postmodernism in terms of time without historical horizon. There is no "telos" (goal, purpose) and vision of the whole. Itself is not a project but a reaction.

Postmodernism allows the reception of categories such as "fiction", the mere appearance of reality and a new logic: the logic of seduction represented in the culture of welfare and hedonism. Besides

Boudrillard Lyotard and Gianni Vattimo (12) says that postmodernism is a thought of the enjoyment of pure joy about the present, without past or future, no history, as each person is his own historian. Pollution is a thought, open, where anything goes, is a weak thought, not because I have a weakness, but because it seeks the "weakening of Being, leaving attribute characteristics strong, time-bound to admit, life and death. Such weakening of the self is the human emancipation will enable the progressive reduction of violence and dogmatism (13).

These are some of the paintings with which we are introduced to the authors postmodern postmodernism: the crisis of values, weak thinking, logic of seduction, no past and no future, fragmentation, multiplicity. In the brush strokes that give shape to postmodernism, we acknowledge the influence of authors, among others, as Friedriech Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger (14).

Main influences on the postmodern condition

The most significant influence of postmodern authors receive Nietzsche. On the one hand, his "death of God", has several implications, among others, ending with the real world with the metaphysical, you know it's no compass, no values. Moreover, what he calls positive aspects of nihilism, is a strong attacking those values \u200b\u200bto make a "transvaluation" the devaluation of the highest values, lack of goals, the lack of answers to why?, Is become the most important driving force to develop the postmodern project.

Another influence is Heidegger, who take their critical metaphysics and modernity, the modern subject as a renderer, the corrosive effects of the technique, rationalization and the result of forgetfulness of being.

are added, as other influences and precedents, these two authors Germans, Americans, William James (15) for its pragmatism and pluralism, and John Dewey (16) for his attack on the assumptions of traditional philosophy and social theory, which, in his view, must be thoroughly amended and renewed.

The postmodern man

For the postmodern man is thrown into the world. He's lost the transcendental self (unit truth, good, beauty). Humanity is disarmed and dispersed, and therefore has no image of unity, is itself is a multiplicity.

Life would be an experimental style, characterized by sacrificing moral values, considering them hypocritical. In the experimental life of postmodern man's contemplation of emptiness of self, of nirvana.

The dignity is attributed solely to their individuality, that is untouchable: "... autonomy, the irreducibility of each principle that can not be violated in the construction of any relationship. Principle that not only alludes to possessive individualism, self-centeredness, egotism, narcissism, but because the person is free of principle and in that sense, must be free feeling, thinking, in all their actions. Should not yield to no one's ever won that right is individual freedom " (17). And from that individuality has the right to define their own ethics.

Ethics which, incidentally, is not based on an objective distinction between good and evil, no fixed rules, is a subjective ethic which advocates tolerance and moral pluralism. proposes a moral nihilism, where forms are kept for aesthetic reasons, any distinction of acting is a matter of labels, the only criteria to approve or disapprove action is the common aesthetic sense.

The total "beautification" of life manifests itself in a meaningless existence, a dynamic without purpose, creativity without principles, which will illustrate the lifestyle: alternative marriages, families without stability, art and free fashion styles, philosophy without reason, without a past history, religion without faith.

Moreover, the postmodern man looking for that tolerance and pluralism are guaranteed by positive law. This guarantee is what explains the combination of postmodern relativism and legalism. Requires state laws to expand their spaces positive forms of behavior, in other historical moments or conceptions of life, are reprehensible. In these laws calls postmodernism experimental alternatives, since they do not reflect values, but arrangements for coexistence. Thus, the relationship between law and justice disappears.

If Habermas stresses the dialogue - and practice - as a lifeline to continue with the modern project in a new direction, Lyotard emphasizes the dissension of views. I mean, for any of these contemporary thinkers consensus is the goal and both share a strong linguistic root. If Habermas's proposal is first to reach consensus through dialogue, this would mean that has violated the plurality of meanings since we are all radically different in our speech and, therefore, in our opinion. It is then that the recognition of the "other" as different but there is no dialogue of tolerance and respect for all diverse, since the concepts of goodness, evil, true or false are constructions from the meta narratives: false.

Policy

postmodern considerations we have noted so far allow us to enter the political vision of postmodern authors have, and once, see how they interpret to be taken forward in political life.

For the postmodern thinking there is no policy as such, there is no politics understood as a coordinated set of measures aimed at achieving the common good, so there are "policy ..." whose construction allows postmodern adage "everything is political. "

This understanding of politics leads to the postmodern authors argue that politics is everything to where it can expand, "... policy," meaning that it is not to define policy, but to point out the processes of politicization. The complement of the name determines the area in which policy moves. Thus, there is a policy of trans-humanism, design, privacy, consumer, anti conception of what a transsexual, data protection, rock, etc.., and thereby make it possible to multiply by hundreds and hundreds of fields in which there phenomena and objects that are politicized, many of them conflicting and when not competing with each other. For postmodernism the enumeration of certain objects politicized is a project of political construction.

Diana Fuss points out the fact that the multiplicity of "the politics of ..." has not really know what is politics (18). The "panpolitismo" which boast postmodernity is but the consequence of this inability to articulate a form of identity politics.

Thus, we fully support the additional of relativism from the point of view of politics. Postmodernism is lost in understanding and appreciation of the property to be loved and pursued in common. You lose the search for the common good, good, service and defense of the whole society. You lose what constitutes political activity in the classical sense of the term universal.

In return, as Thomas Aquinas (19) had established the connection that "who wants to find what the best life in the city must first of all, consider what life worthy of man. In fact living a good social life, we must achieve a fully human life " (20).

degradation that makes politics postmodernism is in interpreting it as an exaggeration of gestures-parody-which must be ironic , expropriating their meaning and significance forcing its re through its deconstruction.

Through undergo degradation to which the postmodern social reality, politics, thought, religion, no longer necessary forms and Beautiful human activity. The man is condemned to live in solitude, seeking a balance between order and freedom, to become in struggles for power, modes of action in which we own areas outside of "politics" and without distinction between public and private, assuming, for both the constant multiplication of the "policy of ..." more multiplicities.

Notes:

(1) 1924 - 1998. French philosopher.

(2) Jürgen Habermas. 1929. German philosopher and social theorist.

(3) Interview with Jean François Lyotard. Review "A party Rei." No. 49. January 2007. Translation: Teresa Oñate.

(4) Lyotard, Jean François. The postmodern condition. Planeta-Agostini, Barcelona, \u200b\u200b1992.

(5) Roger not "forget" but as maintaining a "something" incomprehensible, indescribable and ever: a practice to reach "nirvana" or completely separated from reality.

(6) Lyotard, Jean Francois. The postmodern explained to children. Gedisa, Barcelona, \u200b\u200b1992.

(7) 1280 / 1288 - 1349. It was a Franciscan friar and English scholastic philosopher.

(8) from 1646 to 1716. He was a philosopher, mathematician, lawyer, librarian and German political.

(9) 1844 - 1900. He was a philosopher, poet and philologist German.

(10) Idem note 6.

(11) 1929 -2007. He was a philosopher and sociologist, critic of French culture. His work relates to the analysis of postmodernism and the philosophy of post-structuralism.

(12) Turin, January 4, 1936. It is an important political philosopher and part Italian.

(13) Vattimo, Gianni. Weak Thought. Cátedra, Madrid, 1983.

(14) 1889 -1976. Father was a German philosopher of "existentialism" philosophical movement which seeks to establish the knowledge of all facts about the immediate experience of life own.

(15) from 1842 to 1910, American philosopher with a long and illustrious career at Harvard University, where he taught psychology. Founder of the psychology of religion.

(16) 1859 -1952, was a philosopher, American psychologist and educator. Founder of progressive psychology.

(17) Ferman, Claudia. Politics and Postmodernism. Almagest, Buenos Aires, 1994.

(18) Fuss, Diana. Essentially Speaking. Feminism, Nature and Difference. Routledge, London, 1989.

(19) 1225 -1274, was a renowned Italian theologian and is the most representative scholastic tradition and the father of the Thomistic school of theology and philosophy.

(20) Commentary on Aristotle's Politics, VII, 1.